4 10 48 https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/4ea9c644b8c31774486175916b2ad3d7.jpg f6834c82f8e2457a2076fd6658d921ea Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Plantations Subject The topic of the resource Plantations of the Cochineal Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document The insect discovered by Doctor Anderson at Fort St. George, which was generally supposed to have been cochineal, proves on examination by several of our first chymisls to bear no resemblance whatever to that valuable article. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Foreign Occurrences Subject The topic of the resource Plantantions Description An account of the resource An extract of an article describing a plantation of the cochineal started by the British. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Massachusetts Centinel (Boston, Massachusetts) VIII, no. 20, pg. 77. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Readex: America's Historical Newspapers. https://infoweb-newsbank-com.lib-proxy.fullerton.edu/apps/readex/doc?p=EANX&docref=image/v2:109E87A216CC1710@EANX-10BCFCEFF8A54438@2374076-10BCFCF00C37BF20@0-10BCFCF0B9F090B8@Foreign+Occurrences.+London%2C+September+19. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource November 24, 1787 Type The nature or genre of the resource Newspaper Article https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/1a41a94a5d18d3d2894b475c96d9ec32.pdf 95a833794e825040d0ae84d8926b9f66 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Plantations Subject The topic of the resource Plantations of the Cochineal Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document pg. 409-410 IV. Introduce such fresh Staples into the southern-continental and Sugar Colonies, as the Soil and Climate would admit, with profit; extend the Culture of those not yet brought to Perfection. The new staples which particularly require our attention, are cochineal, tea, and spices; and the old ones, which greatly want a more vigorous culture, are cotton, cocoa and coffee. The possibility of producing cochineal and spices has already been proved, and the probability of tea, likewise; but, left to the attention of planters alone, they never will be effected; unless the government interferes by giving proper encouragement to such undertakings, it is idle to think of such exceedingly beneficial events taking place. These articles, however, would require but a, small expence, and the, employment of very few people, compared with the extensive business before sketched, concerning iron and timber. In respect to the execution, it would, in the first place, be necessary to gain as complete a knowledge of the nature, and culture of those plants as possible, by such means as the government discovered to be the most likely to succeed. Plants, or feed of the tea-shrub, in case it was thought to be already (which, however, there is great reason to believe it is) in South Carolina, might be gained by dexterous management from China; and, in all probability, people with them to direct the cultivation; but neither one nor the other, would ever be gained if the East India company had the least to do in the transaction, for reasons obvious enough. The opuntia or cochineal-shrub is found in great plenty in all our islands; the only thing requisite would be to gain the art of properly managing the insects: no difficult matter sure so near the Spanish colonies: and as to spices, there are proofs sufficient of their being already in the islands of Tobago and Granada, as been already displayed; so that the grand business would consist in making proper experiments upon materials already in our possession. The proper method of doing this, would be to engage some intelligent, sensible planters, whose lands seemed of the proper kind, to make fair, complete, and repeated trails; the team in the back, hilly parts of the Carolinas, the spices in Tobago, and the cochineal in Jamaica, &c. The whole expence should not only be borne by the government, but the loss of the land (if it proved a loss) made good. A few acres would be sufficient for all these trails. pg. 491-492 Of the British Commerce with Spain. The commercial writers of this country for many years spoke in the warmest terms of our Spanish trade, and with very great reason; for, till the recovery of France, under the regency of the duke of Orleans, it was the most advantageous branch possessed by Great Britain, taking off vast quantities of her woollen manufacture and her corn, in return chiefly for silver: during which beneficial state of affairs Spanish money was as common in England as ever Portuguese has been; but by degrees the French, through their dextrous negotiations, and by means of having a prince of the house of Bourbon on the throne of Spain, together with the success their industry met with in rivalling the English manufactures; altogether, were able nearly to beat us out of the Spanish commerce, insomuch that it is questioned by some, whether the balance with Spain is in our favour or not; but it is generally agreed that if it is, the amount is very small. The commodities we export to Spain are woollen goods, corn, rice, fish, tin, lead, leather, and iron wares; and receive in return, wines, oil, fruits, wool, indigo, cochineal, &c. Of these cochineal and wool are very advantageous articles, being of great importance to our manufactures; nor are any of the other articles to be complained of, while they are paid for with our commodities. I can meet with no particulars of this trade so late as to be now of any authority. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Political essays Concerning the Present State of the British Empire Subject The topic of the resource International Trade Plantations Description An account of the resource Excerpts from a book describing international trade and possible plantations of the Cochineal. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Young, Arthur. Political essays concerning the present state of the British Empire [...], (London: Printed for W. Strahan and T. Cadell, 1772): 409-410, 491-192. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/cihm_44627 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1772 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/942358e0a9fd69e79cf3819aad6f9e43.pdf fb3d5f40ae0f21a8d0472cb842371495 https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/75ad26f2a43ce0ac97bd383f7684e313.pdf 3599dcb3a7dda907a8d8751079ac1ade Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Plantations Subject The topic of the resource Plantations of the Cochineal Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document Memoir on the Bengal Cochineal: by Dr. Nicolas Fontano. The introduction of the cochineal insect into Bengal, which our neighbours had endeavoured to naturalize in their West India possessions, is an event that deserves to be particularly marked, as being likely, under proper management, to become not only a new aera in the progressive resources of the East India Company, but an accession of opulence to the British empire;—an aera the more remarkable, as, notwithstanding the attempts of government, the design was not accomplished but through accident, the great parent of discovery, and which, with never ceasing influence, operates in so many ways for the good of man-kind. After a large plantation of the various species of Opuntia had been reared at Madras, waiting only for the arrival of the insect to make it serviceable, which a long correspondence (from the year 1787 to 1790) could not obtain, Dr. Anderson's repeated solicitations about it had been almost forgotten; yet, though his laborious industry, and zeal for his country's interest, had no other reward, the introduction of the cochineal insect into India is entirely owing to his publications on the subject, which fortunately fell into the hands of Captain Nelson, who was then stationed at Madras with the 52d regiment. On the Captain's return to India in 1795, the fleet, in which he came, repaired for refreshments to the coast of Brazil, and anchored in the port of Rio de Janeiro. In his perambulations a little way out of town, in which he was attended with the usual guard, he saw a plantation of Opuntia, with the insect on it. This circumstance immediately brought to his recollection the ardent wish for the importation of the insect expressed in the letters he had read at Madras; and he conceived the hope of being able to gratify Dr. Anderson's desire, by carrying some to India with him. A day or two previous to his embarkation, he took another walk to the place where he had seen the Opuntia, or Napal; and made bold to ask the cultivators for some of the plants, being curious, he said, in matters of natural history. Having collected several other plants, he wished to have this also. The good people, being the less suspicious of any design, as he was in his regimentals, granted his request. They gave him several plants with insects upon them, which he carefully carried on board. Many of these, during the passage to Bengal, which was rather too long and tedious for the transportation of such delicate passengers, died. A few insects only remained alive on the last plant, several of the leaves having withered. Captain Nelson, on his arrival in Calcutta, sent the survivors to the botanic garden, where they were distributed on the several species of the Opuntia. This well nigh frustrated the whole labour. On the China and Manilla species of the Napal they were found to die fast. It fortunately occurred, to make trial of the indigenous Opuntia of Bengal, which is also abundant in many parts of India. On this the insects thrived amazingly; insomuch that, from these few, in the course of four or five months, a quantity had been collected sufficient for distribution among all who wished to try the rearing of them; and several plants, on which the insects were feeding, were sent to Madras. The novelty and importance of the object, promising so plentiful and speedy a harvest of fortune, engaged a multitude of individuals to undertake the business; and this, no doubt, the more readily, as the cultivation of this rich field of wealth required but very little capital. Many golden dreams were enjoyed by the new planters. All who had a mind were provided with insects, and undertook plantations of Opuntia. The anxiety and impatience natural to all, who, indulging in ardent expectations, undertake new enterprizes, induced some of the first cultivators of the Napal, to put the insect upon it, when the plant had scarcely emerged from the ground. Others, through in-attention, kept their insects in places too near to the young plantations, where the Opuntia was growing, which, in a tender and premature state, was devoured by those creatures when hard pressed by hunger. The unskilful mode of drying the insect was adopted likewise: and some of those persons, whose opinions lead the multitude, declared in the most decided and positive manner, that the Cochineal would never answer, as it would not be found worth the trouble and expence attending the cultivation of it. All these circumstances damped, in a great measure, the ardour of the enterprize. Many abandoned the pursuit, and left the insects to provide for themselves, after the plants destined for their use were destroyed, wherever they could find nourishment. They were seen flying about indiscriminately on various other plants, and thus perishing; while others rooted out the plantations, and employed the ground for other purposes. Beside the discouraging circumstances already mentioned, it was urged, that the species of insect imported into India was only the Grana Sylvestris, and that the first specimens sent home had been found to be of no value. They had grown lumpy and musty for want of being properly dried, or thoroughly divested of the cottony substance, with which the insect is covered. But supposing, it was added, that a proper mode of drying and preparing it could be found out, and the cultivation of it brought to the greatest perfection, it would soon overstock the market, as there is a certain quantity only, and that not very great, which is required for Europe. This would soon be supplied, and loss instead of gain would accrue to the planters. This excess, however, it was farther urged, was to be presumed only in the case of the country being able to supply plants sufficient for the food of the insect, which was very doubtful, on account of its quick re-production, as it sends forth a new generation every forty days. These, with other objections of less force, may easily be refuted by any impartial observer, acquainted with the nature of the climate and soil of India, even without any kind of knowledge in agriculture. In so vast an extent of territory as that of the East India Company, and lying under such a variety of climates, it is not surely either impossible, or very difficult, to find out a climate and soil fitted for the naturalization and rearing of the Cochineal insect, and where the plants will grow to the proper size required for affording it proper food; in the same manner as in some districts of Mexico, where the people, who take most pains, have them of such a height, as to require ladders to gather the insect. Such a state of the plant would check the too rapid reproduction of the insect, and at the same time improve its quality; for it is a fact, that the Sylveſter Cochineal, when bred upon a good full-grown Napal, loses part of its tenacity, grows to double the size of that gathered on puny plants, and less covered with the cottony substance. The cultivation of Cochineal would, in all probability, be greatly favoured by the vicinity of a hilly country, such as the Banglapore, Rajam-Mahrul, and Purneah. It can be ascertained, by good authority, that there are already in the Chittegong district, plantations of extraordinary large Opuntias, which have been growing for two years past. Whenever the insect shall be placed on these plants, we shall see Cochineal of a very good quality. The nature and habits of the natives seem entirely calculated for the employment of gathering the insect; work that might be done by old men, women, and boys. As to the drying of the insects, there is no country where the sun has such power as in Bengal. The method of drying in the sun, after scalding the insect in hot water, is that which is practised in Mexico; and in Brazil the insects collected in wooden bowls are thinly spread from them upon a hot dish of earthen ware, and placed alive over a charcoal fire, where they are slowly roasted, until the downy covering disappears, and the aqueous juices of the animal are totally evaporated. During this operation the insects are constantly stirred about with a tin ladle, and ſometimes water is sprinkled upon them to prevent absolute torrefaction, which would destroy the colour; but a little practice will teach when to remove them from the fire: though surely its barbarity ought to prevent its adoption. By an estimate, made on a large scale, of the necessary expence that would attend the cultivation of a hundred bighas of ground planted with Opuntia, it appeared, that, after making every possible allowance for ground-rent, ryots, gathering, an European overseer, and interest on disbursements at twelve per cent. the quantity produced of Grana Sylvestris, during nine months in a year, reckoning it at four ficca rupees per seer, or thirty-two ounces, would more than treble the capital employed. But, if this calculation be just, made in the vicinity of Calcutta, (and there is not any reason to suppose it otherwise) where labour and ground-rent is dear, how much less would the whole expence of cultivation and preparation be, if transferred to a greater distance, and to the other provinces! When the insect is well dried, it should be packed immediately, as it night otherwise be affected by the damp air of Bengal. In this business the method used in Mexico should be followed, which is, to put it first in a tight linen bag, covered over with a compact mat, and then over the whole an ox's hide ſewed ſo closely as to render it impervious to water. For some of the Cochineal, which I wanted for the purpose of making some experiments, collected at En-taly, two miles from Calcutta, in 1795–96, I paid sixteen rupees per seer: for the same quantity raised by another planter the following year, eight rupees: and in 1797, I might have bought a great quantity, part of which came one hundred miles from Calcutta, at five rupees per seer. The improvability of the Grana Sylvestris by due attention, will be ascertained more clearly by the following fact than by a thousand arguments. Some merchants, at my recommendation, bought about two hundred pounds of cochineal made at Rassapughlah, five miles from Calcutta, at five rupees per seer. The same house paid for seven maunds, or two hundred and eighty seers, to Mr. Stephens of Keerpoy, seven rupees per seer, in October 1797; and I can say, that it was the best of the sort that had yet been seen in town, both for its size, cleaning, and drying. Let us now suppose, for a moment, such Cochineal as that made at Keerpoy to be the best that can ever be obtained in Bengal, and that the above may be within a rupee more or less the average price. The Grana Fina that is brought to Bengal, by the way of Manilla, ſells, when abundant, at sixteen rupees per seer, but oftener at nineteen or twenty. The Bengal Sylvestris contains only from nine to ten sixteenth parts of the colouring matter found in the other; but say only one half, so that the manufacturer will be obliged to use two seers instead of one, the quality of the colour supposed to be the same. Even at this rate the silk manufactories in Bengal might be supplied with it with a yearly saving. After supplying this market, if the quantity be increased, there will be a demand for it for the China and English markets, though only of the Sylvester kind. Supposing it for ever to remain such by leaving it to the care of the indolent natives only, even this would be a great acquisition, considering the various ways in which it can be employed by the dyers. Besides, if the prices were immediately to fall, so as not to indemnify the present charges of freight and insurance to the private adventurer, how easy would it be to reduce the insect to a much smaller bulk, by making a lake, and producing carmine, no less valuable than the Grana Fina. The overstocking of the markets, however, with a drug so important and of such extensive use, is not a thing that is very likely soon to happen. The manufacturer, wherever he should find it at a price lower than common, would use it generally, and substitute it in the room of other materials for reds, such as madder, redwood, &c. used for woollens and silks, beside the great variety of shades, from scarlet and crimson, down to all those various tints to be obtained by various modifications of re-agents from Cochineal, with a brilliancy and stability, that would soon repay the small additional expences that might be incurred by this substitution. It is a thing greatly to be wished, as it must be by every good citizen and patriot, that the Bengal Cochineal may soon be brought to such a degree of perfection, and produced in such plenty, as to admit of a reduction in the price, sufficient to induce the calico-printers in Europe, to use it more commonly than hitherto in the dying of cotton; which would open a much wider field for its consumption. As to the shyness of cotton to the admission of this animal colour, it is not an obstacle, that ought, by any means, to be considered as insurmountable in the present state of chemistry, advancing so rapidly to farther and farther improvement; and particularly applying, with vast success, many of its operations to the art of dying. The few unsuccessful attempts made by manufacturers and chemical philosophers, to fix this colour on cotton, have been retarded more by the dearness of the drug, than by any impracticability of the design: this exhausted at once the purse and the patience of both the artist and the chemist, and precluded that continuation, repetition, and diversification of experiment, which is usually found necessary to the completion of new inventions. It was upon cotton, that the Spaniards first saw the Cochineal used at Mexico; but, for want of preparation, it communicated to the stuff but a dull crimson. When some of the dried Bengal insect was shown to a vakeel of the rajah of Napal, residing as minister to our government in Calcutta, he soon knew it, and declared, that it is always used in his country in dying their robes and turbans red. The opportunity of having the management of a chintz manufactory, induced me to make some trials of the Cochineal in cotton, cloth, and thread. By these it was ascertained, that the quantity of colouring matter contained in the Bengal Cochineal of 1796, compared with the Grana Fina, was from nine or eleven to sixteen. I then repeated, as far as the chemical re-agents to be procured in India would permit, various experiments of the kind mentioned by Dr. Bancroft in his first volume of the Philosophy of Fast Colours, and nearly with the same success, in variety of shades and degrees of permanency. From these experiments there resulted two considerable advantages to that manufactory: the first was, that I was thereby induced to make an addition of a certain quantity of powdered Cochineal to the morinda roof, for the fine cloths and muslins, that were to undergo the boiling process in the vat: the second, that I was led to mix with the basis for printing red, or alum, a decoction of Cochineal, inſtead of the turmerick, or red wood, formerly used by printers in tracing their designs. This last substitute was only boiled in simple morinda, and the other with the addition of Cochineal. By this process, such deep and brilliant reds were obtained as had not been seen in Bengal before. The cultivation, therefore, of the cochineal insect, is an object worthy of all the countenance and care of government. The attempts toward its naturalization ought not, by any means, to be abandoned, but continued with persevering industry, and unwearied attention to every circumstance that may promote so important a branch of commerce. For this article we send annually immense sums to the Spaniards. Not only might this expence be saved to Britain; but, in due time, the rest of the world might be supplied from the Bengal produce of this valuable commodity. It is in the recollection of most people, conversant in India affairs, how the specimens of indigo first sent home from Bengal were depreciated and rejected. Hence the cultivation of it was obstructed for some years. But, when it began to be attended to in 1780, and 1782, by people who were acquainted with the best modes of manufacturing it, it was improved with such rapidity, that in the year 1790, some of the Bengal indigo was judged to be equal to the Guatimala, and bore the same price. The quantity sent home in the year 1795-6, was far beyond what had been ever imported into the port of London in any one year from all other parts of the world, and much more than is required by the annual consumption of Europe. This drug, falling in price, taught the planters an useful lesson, namely, that, as good indigo will always yield a profit, it is better to pay regard to the improvement of the quality, than the increase of the quantity. But the use of indigo, in the dye-house, is very circumscribed, and confined chiefly to the colours of blue and green. It gives also a few finer blacks with blue grounds; but it cannot, like Cochineal, be applied to the various principal colours, as crimson, scarlet, purple, &c. and to the intermediate shades. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Asiatic Annual Register Subject The topic of the resource Plantations International Trade Description An account of the resource An excerpt from a book describing the international trade of the cochineal and a plantation in India by the British. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived The Asiatic Annual Register; or, a View of the History of Hindustan and the Commerce and Literature of Asia, For the Year 1799, (London: Printed for J. Debrett, 1800): 170-175. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Public Domain, Google Digitized https://hdl.handle.net/2027/nyp.33433081882361 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 1800 Type The nature or genre of the resource Book https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/b8351023f8ea9d3029f39e4d4f463181.jpg 7bb49080feaabc28d2bbfec9ec893a50 https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/1f804d96e04390681d9b42d336d89ca9.jpg ab59048fdfc0eac72b6594eadfc632a7 https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/981b03dcba22f50341706e3fe6d5d3c2.jpg 6d9f852970ccb595ae57ba0e4fa3b0d1 https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/a51eaff5d0f30f714b9122f1f19d251e.jpg 822e77cf7e9374e02756170a32084869 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Plantations Subject The topic of the resource Plantations of the Cochineal Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document To Sir Joseph Banks Baronet President of the Royal Society. Dear Sir, Since writing to you by the Ship Phoenix; I have had abov a hundred pounds weight of the Cochineal insect brought in from the adjacent country, and learn from correspondents they may be collected even in greater plenty to the northward, at Duraspatnam about 50, and Nellore 90 miles from hence. The young creep on any thing in their neighbourhood indifferently, a leaf of Opuntia, a spike of glass, or a clod of earth; but in our management do not survive eight days. The great quantity with which I have been supplied, from which millions of young have come under inspection, has however enabled me to investigate the Fly more minutely, and I now find it is furnished with four procumbent wings, which brings it more properly under the Kermes, than Coccus kind of the Linnean system, but as the character Saltatoria is wanting, it may be a new genus to compleat the discription of which the microscopical view of a Caterpillar found within the outer Coccus amongst the young insects is annexed No. 5. These Caterpillars are as numerous as the male flies, which do not exceed the proportion of one male to two hundred females. Swammerdam observed that such a Caterpillar on the dog Rofe and black poplar produced a moth or fly, as represented in Doctor Hills translation Tables XLIV and XLV but hitherto I have seen no change of state in these Caterpillars. I come now to acquaint you I have found an Insect on the Phyllanthus. Emblica or Nellikai of the Tamuls of a purplish red colour and surrounded with a silky covering, of so loose a texture, that the threads of it which are as fine as those of the smallest spiders web, may be drawn out to the length of several inches before they break. This insect is now oviparous and deposits its eggs in the silky nest', one of them under the microscope discharged 13 eggs which appeared like a string of purple beads. I have hitherto seen no files belonging to them, and am therefore unable to give them any generic name, but they appear so like the drawings for the female Cochineal described by Mr. Ellis, Philosophical Translations Vol 52d, part 2d, page 664, of which a few days ago I obtained a Copy— that I have prevailed on my friend Baron Reichel to take a microscopical drawing of this Insect l which is annexed and marked No, 6. Linneus his notes says the Aphis is viviparous in summer, and oviparous in autumn by analogy it may be presumed, that altho this Insect is oviparous at present, it may become viviparous in the months of May and June. Finding a Caterpillar likewise inclosed in the silky covering of these Insects, a drawing thereof, as it appears in the microscope, is annexed No. 7. I have likewise found a viviparous Insect covered with white Farina on the Robinia Grandiflora or Agaty Jumbo of the Tamuls on the Psidium Quajava and Hibiscus Rosa Sinensis with a nipple between the two foremost pair of legs, a drawing of which, is enclosed No. 8. These Insects are only of a purplish orange colour; but observing the Aphis on the cabbage leaf green, on the Apocinum-Scandens yellow, and of a chocolate colour on the orange tree, I am disposed to believe the colour of Insects is much affected by the nature of their food, and therefore have placed all of them on the Opuntia. The Abbe Reynal„ in his last edition, says the Opuntia in Mexico must be carefully planted and cultivated eighteen months before it will produce any Cochineal, and Pluckenet, and after him Sir Hans Sloan, whom all succeeding writers have copied, expressly declare the Opuntia bearing Cochineal to have only soft, inofensive thorns; now I am free to say, the wild Plum, Sloe and Rasberry, as well as the Orange tree are more armed than after they have been cultivated, the Mimosa Arabica, known here by the name of the Cock-spur-thorn, when cultivated in a garden almost looses that distinction and the hardest wood I have ever observed grows without culture, Linnaeus in his Philosophia Botannica Page 50slays — "spina estmucro plantce o ligno plantce protusus, Prunus, Rhamnus, Hippophce, Celastrus, Lyaum, cultura sepius evanescit; ut in Pyro. If the same effect is produced on the Opuntia by the like means, which is more probable as the prickles are deciduos, the end I had in view of introducing the culture of Cochineal may be accomplished; because although my Opuntias have not been planted out three months, they are already putting forth young leaves, on which I perceive a few of the last mentioned insects beginning to fatten. Having been solicitous however to attend to such respectable authority I have sent copies of the drawing and discription of the plant Sir Hans Sloane saw in Mr. Werley's garden in Jamaica, to Hydrabad and Bengal. I am with Edseem, Dear Sir, Your most Obedient and very Humble Servant JAMES ANDERSON. Fort St. George Feb. 20th 1787. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Five letters to Sir Joseph Banks Feb. 20, 1787 Subject The topic of the resource Plantations Description An account of the resource A letter describing the beginnings of a Nopal plantation with a native insect that was thought to be similar to the cochineal. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Anderson, James. Five Letter to Sir Joseph Banks [...] (Madras: C. Ford, 1787): 3-6. 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Plantations Subject The topic of the resource Plantations of the Cochineal Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document To Sir Joseph Banks Baronet President of the Royal Society. Dear Sir, Besides the three Cochineal Insects as mentioned in my former Letters, I have found three others, one of which nearly resembles the Phillantous Emblica Insect, excepting that it is smaller in size, on Vitis Vinosera and Coaloo Velloy of the Tamuls which Doctor Russel tells me is the Galega Projirata of Koning, Another on Jumbo of the Tamuls, or Robinia Mills of Linnaeus. This Insect is found on the bark of the Tree, under a matted silky substance, which is so remarkably white, iris conspicuous at the distance of twenty yards. When the silky substance is removed, a beautiful duffer of motionless particles shining and glossy, like the eggs of Insects appears, but magnifying glasses discover them to be furnished with all the limbs compleat... By the affirmance of many gentlemen here, there will soon be plantations made on many parts of the coast. At Ongole about 170 miles north of this place Mr, Young is making a plantation, but I am obliged to send the Opuntias from hence as they are not natives north of the Pennar. I have likewise sent plants to Mr. Lenox at Madepoliam in the Lat. of 16.26 and to Mr. Roxburgh at Samal-Coctuh situated in the Lat. of Antequera, as well as to Doctor Russell at Vizagapatam in the parallel of I7.41 the same with that of Misteca. Mr. Wynch at Ganjam in 19.30 as far north as Pueblo de los Angeles and Tlalcala will I believe be induced to make a plantation. Colonel Elphinston commanding Chingleput, Mr. Wood at Tanjore, Mr. Skardon at Chinapa-naig Pollam, and several other Gentlemen to the Southward, where the Plant is indigenous, acquaint me they are cultivating the Opuntias with great care. Should we fail of success in rearing Cochineal here, the difference of Seasons will probably be the principal cause, and in that case it will only be necessary to transfer the plantations to the same Latitudes on the other side of the Peninsula, where the Rains fall in June the same time they experience the wet Season on Terra Firma. Could we look back to the ancient Guaxacans I question if it would appear that they had brought their Cochineal to perfection in so short a space of time as 6 months; nor can we suppose the Guasmangoes learned to reduce the Silver from the ore on the first discovery of it. ... Another great inconvenience is the high winds, which not only blow the insects from the leaves, but likewise break down the Opuntia Plants, which are very brittle; to remedy which a wall six or seven feet high will be necessary to enclose every plantation, from which no disadvantage need be apprehended, as the Coccus insects are always found in shady places. The rains here can be of little prejudice excepting at the time of the Monsoon, when leaves of the plants with Insects upon them may be lopped off and housed. ... I am with Esteem, Dear Sir, Your very obedient Servant James Anderson Fort St. George May 27th 1787, Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Description An account of the resource An excerpt of a letter describing the increase of Plantations in India. Title A name given to the resource A Sixth Letter to Sir Joseph Banks Baronet Subject The topic of the resource Plantations Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Anderson, James. ASixth Letter to Sir Joseph Banks [...] (Madras: C. Ford, 1787). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/b28765473 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource May 27, 1787 Type The nature or genre of the resource Letter https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/c7cc2f23e4da35138663c529ee6245c9.jpg 1a710d611624fc0e9412772daa8ab397 https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/4cd4d5a6be58e169d9e3a982b5f7e10f.jpg 7bb98ab81a15b8cb0e4b8f7471fb4d2b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Plantations Subject The topic of the resource Plantations of the Cochineal Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document To Sir Joseph Banks Baronet President of the Royal Society. Dear Sir, An opportunity offering of a dispatch for Europe by the way of Bengal, I enclose a compleat Copy of the communication I have made here to all Persons I judged likely to promote the culture of Cochineal in this country, and although those who have gardens found many of their Guava trees covered with Coccus infects, which the perusal of the letters had led them to observe, yet candour obliges me to acquaint you, not a vestige of them is now discernable even under ground. The devaluation made by the Ants, and boisterous South Easterly winds, are the most ostensible causes of their destruction; and it is likewise probable the parching land-wind and heat of the season has diminished die succulency of the plants, so much as to deprive the infects of nourishment. I Have no doubt however, although hidden from my researchers, some have escaped safe, and will multiply and come in review after the approaching wet season. To obviate the ill effects of the winds, I expect to get plantations made in more sheltered situations among the great range of hills at Vellore Sautgurry and Amboor. The [Chloeoon?] has suffered nearly the same fate, as very few of them are to be found; the grass to which they attach being greatly parched with the drought. I have however the pleasure to observe the experiment I mentioned, April 26th has succeeded, and the back of the leaves of the [Menispcrmum cordifoiium?] are many of them covered with Coccus insects of a deep red colour. I am with esteem. Dear Sir, Your very Obedient Servant, James Anderson Fort St. George, July 18th 1787 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource A Seventh Letter Subject The topic of the resource Plantations Description An account of the resource A letter describing the failure of some crops and the plantations due to weather. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Anderson, James. A Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth Letter to Sir Joseph Banks [...] (Madras: C. Ford, 1787): 1-2. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/b28765539 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource July 18, 1787. Type The nature or genre of the resource Letter https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/4caa224604da227a7a559ccb27b5ca32.jpg 2657454cc13f73730367e562a06cc6ef https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/d5fc5fdf3cccfba66b1781776abe0750.jpg 9a744c88e8df290afeb12cca4ea3f238 https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/37c20c5716a576b97c187130d2687068.jpg 0ce43be7e6718f9f22d30b82b98feab6 https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/50f85c0678f0c2f37e1a8d74d1a51d95.jpg e873ca9253c34a586c1cfccf4f0c6f1e https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/ba78c4f742b64b268288fecc88be073f.jpg c03a73ca1c72e6967ec295ed8231c927 https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/1d0e7fecf7c98cc60e28ad6ba1758054.jpg c5b9ca2b82ebf106fbde0b9ffe8219cd https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/ad9fccef1d8c856ca73722149d9a7a56.jpg a6296bc22b778b6d75b2d088d4b81610 https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/8a58cd4c9e55f0fae85f0194f605b6b5.jpg cd5b900ef3905ee1c6539e75f10940a3 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Plantations Subject The topic of the resource Plantations of the Cochineal Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document To Sir Joseph Banks Baronet President of the Royal Society ... The indefatigable Koning found the Jesuits Bark Tree growing at Mount Ophir near Malacca, and many of the American Trees and Plants described by Hernandez, Rhedi, and Lyncius, being indigenous here, there is great probability the Cochineal Thistle may likewise be found. Sir Charles Linnaeus had the Insect: he describes from Dr. Rolander at Surinam, and Mr. Ellis that he mentions in the Philosophical Transactions, from Dr. Garden at Charles Town; but I cannot be persuaded, the want of hands in South Carolina would ever prevent our American Countrymen from cultivating them as he surmises, no more than it would the Dutch at Surinam. The fact undoubtedly is, either that the Insects they mention, were not the same species with those of Mexico, that they could not procure a Plant proper to feed them on, or that the people of these Colonies were not prepared to attend to the Minutia of treating them like the Natives of Mexico, of which many similar instances occur in comparing the habits of people of different Countries, e. g. it has ever been known to the workmen in Europe, that Quick Lime, mixed with sand and water, by long exposure to the air, becomes fit mortar for building, and here the same advantage is obtained by admixture of Sugar; in both cases it acquires what supplies the place of the fixable air, and water it had lost in calcination; but it is only the workmen of this Coast who can therewith plaister a wall, with a beautiful and durable cruft of artificial Marble, and make a cement equal to that of the Romans. The ready assistance I have experienced, having been attended with as much success as I could expect, I shall now drop the subject; having fully stated the result of ten months observation and although in a loose way, as the objects obtruded themselves on my attention ; yet not without a hope, that I have suggested enough to enable those who are particularly fond of Natural Knowledge, to prosecute it still farther. I am, with much Sincerity, and esteem Dear Sir, Your very obedient humble Servant, James Anderson Fort St. George Sept. 25th 1787 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Subject The topic of the resource Plantations Title A name given to the resource An Eleventh Letter Description An account of the resource An extract of a letter discussing the failures of plantations in America and in Dutch colonies. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Anderson, James. An Eleventh Letter to Sir Joseph Banks [...] (Madras: C. Ford, 1787): 6. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/b28765564 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource September 25, 1787. Type The nature or genre of the resource Letter https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/3c627e172983f9bd239f66c01a93d68c.pdf d4a1356d1970d02c6f2bd390796db124 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Plantations Subject The topic of the resource Plantations of the Cochineal Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document To Doctor Anderson P.G. I return you many thanks for your interesting communication, which I received yesterday, and have read with much pleasure. The benevolent aim of all your labours must excite a lively with in every person for their ultimate success and prosperity - I am extremely happy to learn that you have at last been able to obtain the cochineal insect from America, and besides the interest which every one must feel in an event which tends to enlarge our knowledge, and improve our commerce, I cannot but sincerely rejoice personally on your account; knowing how satisfactory it must be to you, and that it will in some measure compensate the many difficulties and discouragements, which have been thrown in your way - Those it is to be hoped, you will be able to surmount, and finally to accomplish the useful work which you have begun. In the midst of the difficulties and obstructions which necessarily attend the progress of a new undertaking like this, every liberal mind will find a pleasure in reflecting, that an art once established perpetuates itself, that the most beneficial improvements are also the most lasting, and though their first beginnings are slow and difficult, their after duration is but little affected by the revolutions of power. Even the introduction of an useful vegetable is an acquisition of which conquest has never deprived the world. - The cherry tree, which was first transplanted into Europe by a Roman Consul,has long outlived the downfall of the Roman power: tho' Lucullus when he adorned his villa with this useful tree, little thought that he was doing what would survive the effect of all his victories, and even the greatness of his country. Instances conformable to history and experience, will seldom belie our expectation, and it is reasonable to hope that the growth of the mulberry and opuntia, with the valuable insects which feed upon them, will probably continue to awaken industry and multiply the means of subsistence on this coast, after the memory of more splendid events, which often only operate to waste and destroy, has been long lost and forgotten, but whatever be the final result, this at least must be the earnest wish of every person who is a friend to mankind. Fra. Duncan, Warriore, August 8th, 1795 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Miscellaneous Communications, August 8th, 1795 Subject The topic of the resource Plantations Piracy Description An account of the resource A letter discussing the British having the cochineal for their plantations in India and how important and traditional of foreign plantations. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Anderson, James. Five Letter to Sir Joseph Banks [...] (Madras: C. Ford, 1795): 52-53. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/miscellaneouscom00andeiala Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource August 8th, 1795 Type The nature or genre of the resource Letter https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/c55b321656cd4e264c7c9cc2306acdde.pdf ba4735b93b173fe559af3b0a4f666c49 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Plantations Subject The topic of the resource Plantations of the Cochineal Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document To Captain Neilson. Doctor Roxburgh, the superintendent of the Company's Botanical establishment, has acquainted the Governor General in Council that you have delivered to him a number of cochineal insects, &c. procured at Rio Janiero. The value of the present can only be ascertained by experience, but whatever that may prove, the Governor General in Council has directed me to request your acceptance of his thanks, and acknowledgements for your endeavors, and attention to open a new source of commercial emolument for the Country and the Company. The Governor General trails that neither his nor your expectations of the advantages to be derived from your exertions will be disappointed, and in this expectation it will afford him particular satisfaction to inform the Honourable Court of Directors, that a valuable article of commerce has been introduced into this country by your means, and to recommend a remuneration in proportion to its importance. I am further directed to add, that Doctor Roxburgh has received directions to accommodate you with a supply of the insects and plants, if you should wish to have them. E. Hay, Sec. to the Government Council Chamber, June 29th, 1795. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Miscellaneous Communications, June 29th, 1795 Subject The topic of the resource Piracy Description An account of the resource A letter congratulating Captain Neilson from taking the cochineal from Rio Janiero and how it will help the English. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Anderson, James. Five Letter to Sir Joseph Banks [...] (Madras: C. Ford, 1795): 67-68. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/miscellaneouscom00andeiala Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource June 29, 1795 Type The nature or genre of the resource Letter https://commerceofthecochineal.com/files/original/9a6ab2dcbcbf5e1ac1b304e54558bd0f.pdf ade8a28d15a41fda15a66a4ddd464e32 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Plantations Subject The topic of the resource Plantations of the Cochineal Text A resource consisting primarily of words for reading. Examples include books, letters, dissertations, poems, newspapers, articles, archives of mailing lists. Note that facsimiles or images of texts are still of the genre Text. Text Any textual data included in the document To the Right Honorable Lord Hobart. Governor in Council. My Lord, I have delayed till now reporting on the Cochineal insects, which Doctor Anderson informed Government, on the 22d ultimo, he had delivered to my charge, that the insects having gone through all their stages, I might speak with some degree of certainty as to the success of their culture here, and with pleasure I can say, that the climate seems most congenial, that they have thriven in all situations, both sheltered and exposed, even to the direct rays of the sun, and to wind and weather, and encountered during the short time they have been here as bad weather for them, as can happen except during the monsoon; strong wind accompanied with heavy falls of rain. The insect too has come to its full growth and produced young even in shorter time than was found in Bengal, having placed young insects on the country nopal on the 28th ultimo, which on the 24th instant produced a new progeny; this quick growth, more than double what happens in Mexico, its hardiness and numerous issue, with the facility that the nopal, on which it thrives, is reared, and the great abundance this plant is now in on every part of the Coast, since Doctor Anderson first called an attention to it in 1787, afford every inducement to an extensive and speedy cultivation. I have now above 100 plants of the country nopal in the garden, and several in the Choultry in pots, with insects placed on them, and can have no hesitation in saying that by this time next month, there will be sufficient to carry their culture to any extent, and even now I should be happy to send a breed to whomever may be induced to rear them. Having hitherto cultivated a variety of foreign nopals for this purpose, on all of which I have also experienced the same want of success in rearing the insects that Captain Neilson, and Doctor Roxburgh did, and that the country nopal first cultivated, as being common and considered less valuable had been thrown out, I am now employed planting the country nopals in their room, and intend only keeping a portion of the Kew nopal in the garden, is this plant is undoubtedly what the fine cochineal is reared upon, and which from this fortunate commencement may also be expected; but independant of this the young leaves of the Kew nopal, are the best succulent and wholesome vegetable, that can be carried to sea, and will remain good for many months, and of which Commodore Rainier has had several supplies, many Captains of Indiamen and others, who have acknowledged its utility- I have already transplanted about 2000 rooted country nopals. and placed them 6 feet asunder, and in a short time more will have 5000, and I am intersecting the fields with hedges of odina (wodier) brandies enclosing nearly every 100 plants, as Doctor Anderson thinks it of great value as a fence almost immediately formed, easily procured, of quick growth, and that will live in every foil. Having told your Lordship that the insects have thriven in every situation, I must however observe, that they have been most numerous when sheltered in some degree from the wind and direct rays of the sun, for which purposes odina fences and flight pandalls of cocoa nut or palmira leaves, sufficient also to keep off any sudden fall of rain, will answer, and with these there can be no doubt the insects may be as numerous on each plant as is thought proper. - as they never can be cultivated to any extent if allowed to remain on the same plants, they are what is termed sown, that is, two or more females full grown are placed according to the size of the plants, at the divisions of the branches, in the most favorable situation for the young insects to spread over them, in bags, the corners being tied together, of 2 inch square pieces, of the fibrous covering of the stems of cocoa-nut leaves, the parenchyma of which has been destroyed by the weather, leaving only a network of the fibres, that the young may be able to pass freely through them, these females must be taken as soon as any young appear; or what I have found answer very well, when a leaf of a nopal can be spared, is to cut it into pieces according to the number of females adhering, and with the thorns of the plant fix these pieces wherever they may be wished; when this is done, the only other attention that is required is to keep the ground clean about the roots of the plants to drive away vermin, and perhaps water the plants a little till young again appear, when such females as are wanted for breeding are without loss of time placed on fresh plants as before described, and the remainder of the insects gathered also as quickly as possible, and plunged into boiling water between two cloths, till the water covers the whole, when they are taken out and dried in the fun and then are fit for the market; the quicker all this is done the better, for the young constituting the finest colouring part, if they are allowed to escape, they cannot be collected, and the mothers become of little value, soon nothing but an empty husk; the plants are then washed and cleared of insects, and allowed to recruit for a month or two, for a succession of many insects on one plant will certainly destroy it. What is farther considered necessary, is to have plants in pots or boxes under cover or in places that can be covered, to preserve a breed from heavy falls of rain and in wet weather, I have now therefore and shall always have in the choultry, the only cover at the nopalry, a sufficient number of plants in pots for this purpose, so that they may be distributed at any time. Having thus stated to your Lordship all regarding the culture of the insects that occurs to me, and what I have been doing, it may be only proper to add in respect to its intrinsic value, and value to this country, that the dye of the silvester cochineal, which this is, is by no means inferior to the grana fina, and is only of less value about one third, from the silky covering which adding to its weight makes equal parts not equally colouring, but this covering renders it more easily reared and a more certain produce than the other, so that in Mexico it is the principal culture of the poor, requiring no stock, and but few hands to earn a subsistence on frequently the worst ground, and employing only the feeble and old, women and children. I am, My Lord, &c. Andrew Berry. Fort St. George, August 26th, 1795. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Miscellaneous Communications, August 26th, 1795 Subject The topic of the resource Plantations Labor Production of Dye Description An account of the resource A letter describing how the plantations in India were better than those in Mexico, how the use plantations, how they make dye, and native labor. Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Anderson, James. Five Letter to Sir Joseph Banks [...] (Madras: C. Ford, 1795): 68-71. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/miscellaneouscom00andeiala Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource August 26, 1795 Type The nature or genre of the resource Letter